耶路撒冷被毁

The siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish Revolt against the Roman Empire (66–73 CE). Roman forces led by Titus, son of the emperor Vespasian, besieged Jerusalem, the Jewish capital and the revolt's main stronghold. After months of fighting, they breached the defenses, destroyed the Second Temple, and razed the city. Much of its population was killed, enslaved, or displaced by the Romans. The city's fall marked the effective end of the revolt and a turning point in Jewish history.

In winter 69–70, following a respite in the revolt's suppression caused by a succession war in Rome, Titus led four legions and auxiliary forces, numbering at least 48,200 soldiers, back into Judaea. By spring, this army had encircled Jerusalem, whose population had swollen with refugees and Passover pilgrims. Inside the city, rival factions led by John of Gischala, Simon bar Giora, and Eleazar ben Simon fought each other, destroying the city's food supplies and weakening its defenses. The factions eventually united and mounted fierce resistance, but the Romans breached the walls and drove the defenders into the Temple precincts.

In the month of Av (July/August), the Romans captured the Temple Mount and destroyed the Second Temple—an event commemorated annually in Judaism on Tisha B'Av. The rest of Jerusalem fell in the following weeks, and the Romans systematically demolished most of the city. A year later, Titus and Vespasian celebrated the victory with a triumph in Rome, parading Temple spoils—including the menorah—alongside hundreds of captives. The victory was later commemorated in monuments such as the Arch of Titus and on the Judaea capta coinage.

Background

Jerusalem on the eve of the revolt

Jerusalem was a prosperous city during the first century CE, serving as the religious and political center of Jewish life both in Judaea and the diaspora.……

Jerusalem's defenses

Jerusalem was bounded by the Kidron Valley to the east and the Hinnom Valley to the south and west.……

Titus's march on Jerusalem and early engagements

In winter 69/70, Titus marched from Egypt through the coastal plain to Caesarea Maritima, where he established his main base.……

Battle for Jerusalem's walls

On 14 Nisan, the start of the Passover festival, the Romans took advantage of a temporary halt in Jewish attacks to move their siege forces closer to Jerusalem's walls.……

From Antonia to the Temple Mount

When hostilities resumed, Titus constructed siege ramps at the Antonia Fortress and against the towers of the Upper City, while also employing psychological warfare. He staged a four-day parade of cavalry and infantry in polished armor and distributed their pay in view of the walls.……

Destruction of the Second Temple

According to Josephus, on 8 Av (July/August), two legions completed their ramps against the Temple. When the battering rams failed to breach the masonry, Titus ordered the gates set alight; the fire spread through the porticoes, and the outer court fell into Roman hands.……

Conquest of the Lower and Upper City

After the Temple's destruction, some rebels sought a parley with Titus, meeting on a bridge overlooking the ruins, possibly at what is now Wilson's Arch.……

Destruction of Jerusalem

By early September, the conquest of Jerusalem was complete. According to Josephus, Titus ordered the city razed, except for a few structures:

Captives and executions

After Jerusalem's fall, Titus ordered the killing of those who continued to resist, though many elderly and infirm prisoners were massacred as well, despite his orders to the contrary.……

Aftermath

Casualties, enslavement, and displacement

During the siege of Jerusalem and its aftermath, the population suffered mass extermination. Josephus claims that 1.1 million people died in the siege, mostly Jews who came for Passover and became trapped in the city as pilgrims kept arriving despite the revolt.……

Triumph and mop-up operations

in the summer of 71, about a year after Jerusalem's fall, Titus and Vespasian held a triumph in Rome celebrating their victory in Judaea.……

Jewish responses

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a turning point in Jewish history, transforming Jewish identity and practice. With the loss of its religious and national center, Judaism had to adapt to displacement and uncertainty.……

Apocalyptic literature

The destruction prompted a resurgence of Jewish apocalyptic literature, which sought to interpret the destruction of the Temple and expressed hopes for its restoration.……

Legacy and cultural impact

In Jewish tradition and culture

The destruction of Jerusalem marked a profound turning point for the Jewish people, and Jewish political control over the city would not resume until the 20th century. Even so, Jerusalem remained central to Jewish religious life and identity throughout this long period.……